Manual Therapy
Volume 15, Issue 3 , Pages 212-219 , June 2010

Why do spinal manipulation techniques take the form they do? Towards a general model of spinal manipulation

Received 20 November 2008 ,Revised 21 March 2009 ,Accepted 28 March 2009.

References 

  1. Abumi K, Panjabi MM, Kramer KM, Duranceau J, Oxland T, Crisco JJ. Biomechanical evaluation of lumbar spinal stability after graded facetectomies. Spine. 1990;15:1142–1147
  2. Adams MA, Hutton WC. The relevance of torsion to the mechanical derangement of the lumbar spine. Spine. 1981;6(3):241–248
  3. Adams MA, Hutton WC. The mechanical function of the lumbar apophyseal joints. Spine. 1983;8(3):327–330
  4. Alexander H, Cook TH. Accounting for natural tension in the mechanical testing of human skin. J Invest Dermatol. 1977;69:310–314
  5. Anderson R. Spinal manipulation before chiropractic. In:  Haldeman S editors. Principles and practice of chiropractic. Norwalk, CT: Appleton & Lange; 1992;p. 3–14
  6. Assendelft WJ, Morton SC, Yu EI, Suttorp MJ, Shekelle PG. Spinal manipulative therapy for low back pain. A meta-analysis of effectiveness relative to other therapies. Ann Inter Med. 2003;138(11):871–881
  7. Bartol KM. Osseous manual thrust techniques. In:  Gatterman MI editors. Foundations of chiropractic: subluxation. 1st ed.. St. Louis: Mosby; 1995;p. 87–104
  8. Bereznick DE. Lumbar manipulation: quantification and modification of the external kinetics affecting the presence and site of cavitation. PhD thesis, University of Waterloo, Ontario; 2005.
  9. Bereznick DE, Ross JK, McGill SM. The frictional properties at the thoracic skin–fascia interface: implications in spine manipulation. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon). 2002;17(4):297–303
  10. Berkson MH. Mechanical properties of the human lumbar spine flexibilities, intradiscal pressures, posterior element influences. Proc Inst Med Chic. 1977;31:138–143
  11. Bogduk N. Clinical anatomy of the lumbar spine and sacrum. 4th ed.. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone; 2005;
  12. Bogduk N, Mercer S. Biomechanics of the cervical spine. I: normal kinematics. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon). 2000;15(9):633–648
  13. Bronfort G, Haas M, Evans RL, Bouter LM. Efficacy of spinal manipulation and mobilization for low back pain and neck pain: a systematic review and best evidence synthesis. Spine. 2004;4(3):335–356
  14. Bronfort G, Haas M, Evans R, Kawchuk G, Dagenais S. Evidence-informed management of chronic low back pain with spinal manipulation and mobilization. Spine. 2008;8(1):213–225
  15. Carrino JA, Manton GL, Morrison WB, Vaccaro AR, Schweitzer ME, Flanders AE. Posterior longitudinal ligament status in cervical spine bilateral facet dislocations. Skeletal Radiol. 2006;35(7):510–514
  16. Cook C, Hegedus E, Showalter C, Sizer PS. Coupling behavior of the cervical spine: a systematic review of the literature. J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 2006;29(7):570–575
  17. Cossette JW, Farfan HF, Robertson GH, Wells RV. The instantaneous center of rotation of the third lumbar intervertebral joint. J Biomech. 1971;4(2):149–153
  18. Cramer GD, Tuck NR, Knudsen JT, Fonda SD, Schliesser JS, Fournier JT, et al. Effects of side-posture positioning and side-posture adjusting on the lumbar zygapophysial joints as evaluated by magnetic resonance imaging: a before and after study with randomization. J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 2000;23(6):380–394
  19. Cramer GD, Gregerson DM, Knudsen JT, Hubbard BB, Ustas LM, Cantu JA. The effects of side-posture positioning and spinal adjusting on the lumbar Z joints: a randomized controlled trial with sixty-four subjects. Spine. 2002;27(22):2459–2466
  20. Cramer G, Budgell B, Henderson C, Khalsa P, Pickar J. Basic science research related to chiropractic spinal adjusting: the state of the art and recommendations revisited. J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 2006;29(9):726–761
  21. Daly CH. Biomechanical properties of dermis. J Invest Dermatol. 1982;79:17–20
  22. Evans DW, Breen AC. A biomechanical model for mechanically efficient cavitation production during spinal manipulation: prethrust position and the neutral zone. J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 2006;29(1):72–82
  23. Evans DW, Lucas N. What is manipulation? A reappraisal. Man Ther, submitted for publication.
  24. Fazey PJ, Song S, Mønsås S, Johansson L, Haukalid T, Price RI, et al. An MRI investigation of intervertebral disc deformation in response to torsion. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon). 2006;21(5):538–542
  25. Gál J, Herzog W, Kawchuk G, Conway P, Zhang Y-T. Biomechanical studies of spinal manipulative therapy (SMT): quantifying the movements of vertebral bodies during SMT. J Can Chiropr Assoc. 1994;38:11–24
  26. Gál JM, Herzog W, Kawchuk GN, Conway PJ, Zhang Y-T. Forces and relative vertebral movements during SMT to unembalmed post-rigor human cadavers: peculiarities associated with joint cavitation. J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 1995;18:4–9
  27. Gibbons P, Tehan P. Patient positioning and spinal locking for lumbar spine rotation manipulation. Man Ther. 2001;6(3):130–138
  28. Gross AR, Hoving JL, Haines TA, Goldsmith CH, Kay T, Aker P, et al. Cervical Overview Group A Cochrane review of manipulation and mobilization for mechanical neck disorders. Spine. 2004;29(14):1541–1548
  29. Harris JD. History and development of manipulation and mobilization. In:  Basmajian JV,  Nyberg R editor. Rational manual therapies. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1993;p. 7–19[chapter 2]
  30. Herzog W. The mechanical, neuromuscular, and physiologic effects produced by spinal manipulation. In:  Herzog W editors. Clinical biomechanics of spinal manipulation. New York: Churchill Livingstone; 2000;p. 191–207
  31. Kawchuk GN, Herzog W. Biomechanical characterization (fingerprinting) of five novel methods of cervical spine manipulation. J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 1993;16(9):573–577
  32. Kawchuk GN, Perle SM. The relation between the application angle of spinal manipulative therapy (SMT) and resultant vertebral accelerations in an in situ porcine model. Man Ther. 12 Jan 2009;14(5):480–483
  33. Klein P, Broers C, Feipel V, Salvia P, Van Geyt B, Dugailly PM, et al. Global 3D head-trunk kinematics during cervical spine manipulation at different levels. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon). 2003;18(9):827–831
  34. König A, Vitzthum HE. Functional MRI of the spine: different patterns of positions of the forward flexed lumbar spine in healthy subjects. Eur Spine J. 2001;10(5):437–442
  35. Kubein-Meesenburg D, Nägerl H, Fanghänel J. Elements of a general theory of joints. 4. Coupled joints as simple gear systems. Anat Anz. 1991;172(5):309–321
  36. Kulig K, Landel R, Powers CM. Assessment of lumbar spine kinematics using dynamic MRI: a proposed mechanism of sagittal plane motion induced by manual posterior-to-anterior mobilization. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2004;34(2):57–64
  37. Legaspi O, Edmond SL. Does the evidence support the existence of lumbar spine coupled motion? A critical review of the literature. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2007;37(4):169–178
  38. Levine AM, Bosse M, Edwards CC. Bilateral facet dislocations in the thoracolumbar spine. Spine. 1988;13(6):630–640
  39. Lysell E. Motion in the cervical spine. An experimental study on autopsy specimens. Acta Orthop Scand. 1969;(Suppl. 123):41–61
  40. Malmivaara A, Videman T, Kuosma E, Troup JD. Facet joint orientation, facet and costovertebral joint osteoarthrosis, disc degeneration, vertebral body osteophytosis, and Schmorl's nodes in the thoracolumbar junctional region of cadaveric spines. Spine. 1987;12(5):458–463
  41. Mansour M, Spiering S, Lee C, Dathe H, Kalscheuer AK, Kubein-Meesenburg D, et al. Evidence for IHA migration during axial rotation of a lumbar spine segment by using a novel high-resolution 6D kinematic tracking system. J Biomech. 2004;37:583–592
  42. McCarthy CJ. Spinal manipulative thrust technique using combined movement theory. Man Ther. 2001;6(4):197–204
  43. McGlashen KM, Miller JA, Schultz AB, Andersson GB. Load displacement behavior of the human lumbo-sacral joint. J Orthop Res. 1987;5:488–496
  44. McGregor AH, Wragg P, Gedroyc WM. Can interventional MRI provide an insight into the mechanics of a posterior–anterior mobilisation?. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon). 2001;16(10):926–929
  45. Milne N. The role of zygapophysial joint orientation and uncinate processes in controlling motion in the cervical spine. J Anat. 1991;178:189–201
  46. Molnár S, Manó S, Kiss L, Csernátony Z. Ex vivo and in vitro determination of the axial rotational axis of the human thoracic spine. Spine. 2006;31(26):E984–E991
  47. Nägerl H, Kubein-Meesenburg D, Fanghänel J. Elements of a general theory of joints. 2. Introduction to a theory of synarthrosis. Anat Anz. 1990;171:323–333
  48. Nägerl H, Kubein-Meesenburg D, Fanghänel J. Elements of a general theory of joints. 7. Mechanical structures of the relative motion of adjacent vertebrae. Ann Anat. 1992;174(1):66–75
  49. Ngan JM, Chow DH, Holmes AD. The kinematics and intra- and inter-therapist consistencies of lower cervical rotational manipulation. Med Eng Phys. 2005;27(5):395–401
  50. Nyberg R. Manipulation: definition, types, application. In:  Basmajian JV,  Nyberg R editor. Rational manual therapies. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1993;p. 21–47[chapter 3]
  51. Pal GP, Routal RV, Saggu SK. The orientation of the articular facets of the zygapophyseal joints at the cervical and upper thoracic region. J Anat. 2001;198(4):431–441
  52. Panjabi MM, Oxland T, Takata K, Goel V, Duranceau J, Krag M. Articular facets of the human spine. Quantitative three-dimensional anatomy. Spine. 1993;18(10):1298–1310
  53. Penning L, Wilmink JT. Rotation of the cervical spine. A CT study in normal subjects. Spine. 1987;12(8):732–738
  54. Peterson DH, Bergmann TF. Chiropractic technique. 2nd ed.. St. Louis: Mosby; 2002;
  55. Powers CM, Kulig K, Harrison J, Bergman G. Segmental mobility of the lumbar spine during a posterior to anterior mobilization: assessment using dynamic MRI. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon). 2003;18(1):80–83
  56. Reihsner R, Baloghi B, Menzel EJ. Two-dimensional elastic properties of human skin in terms of an incremental model at the in vivo configuration. Med Eng Phy. 1995;17:304–313
  57. Shirazi-Adl A. Nonlinear stress analysis of the whole lumbar spine in torsion – mechanics of facet articulation. J Biomech. 1994;27(3):289–299
  58. Sim E, Vaccaro AR, Berzlanovich A, Schwarz N, Sim B. In vitro genesis of subaxial cervical unilateral facet dislocations through sequential soft tissue ablation. Spine. 2001;26(12):1317–1323
  59. Singer KP. Anatomy and biomechanics of the thoracolumbar junction. In:  Boyling JD,  Pastalanga N editor. Grieve's modern manual therapy: the vertebral column. 2nd ed.. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone; 1994;p. 85–97
  60. Singer KP, Breidahl PD, Day RE. Variations in zygapophyseal joint orientation and level of transition at the thoracolumbar junction. Preliminary survey using computed tomography. Surg Radiol Anat. 1988;10(4):291–295
  61. Singer KP, Willen J, Breidahl PD, Day RE. Radiologic study of the influence of zygapophyseal joint orientation on spinal injuries at the thoracolumbar junction. Surg Radiol Anat. 1989;11(3):233–239
  62. Singer KP, Giles LG. Manual therapy considerations at the thoracolumbar junction: an anatomical and functional perspective. J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 1990;13(2):83–88
  63. Sizer PS, Brismée JM, Cook C. Coupling behavior of the thoracic spine: a systematic review of the literature. J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 2007;30(5):390–399
  64. Spenciner D, Greene D, Paiva J, Palumbo M, Crisco J. The multidirectional bending properties of the human lumbar intervertebral disc. Spine. 2006;6(3):248–257
  65. Stark HL. Directional variations in the extensibility of human skin. Br J Plast Surg. 1977;30:105–114
  66. Stokes IAF. Mechanical function of facet joints in the lumbar spine. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon). 1988;3:101–105
  67. Taylor JR, Twomey LT. Structure and function of lumbar zygapophysial (facet) joints. In:  Boyling JD,  Pastalanga N editor. Grieve's modern manual therapy: the vertebral column. 2nd ed.. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone; 1994;p. 99–108
  68. Thompson RE, Barker TM, Pearcy MJ. Defining the neutral zone of sheep intervertebral joints during dynamic motions: an in vitro study. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon). 2003;18(2):89–98
  69. Tohme-Noun C, Rillardon L, Krainik A, Guigui P, Menu Y, Feydy A. Imaging features of traumatic dislocation of the lumbosacral joint associated with disc herniation. Skeletal Radiol. 2003;32(6):360–363
  70. Triano JJ, Schultz AB. Motions of the head and thorax during neck manipulations. J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 1994;17(9):573–583
  71. van Schaik JP, van Pinxteren B, Verbiest H, Crowe A, Zuiderveld KJ. The facet orientation circle. A new parameter for facet joint angulation in the lower lumbar spine. Spine. 1997;22(5):531–536
  72. van Zoest GG, van den Berg HT, Holtkamp FC. Three-dimensionality of contact forces during clinical manual examination and treatment: a new measuring system. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon). 2002;17(9–10):719–722
  73. van Zoest GG, Gosselin G. Three-dimensionality of direct contact forces in chiropractic spinal manipulative therapy. J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 2003;26(9):549–556
  74. Werne S. The possibilities of movement in the craniovertebral joints. Acta Orthop Scand. 1958;28:165–173
  75. White AA, Panjabi MM. The significance of the vertebral posterior elements for the mechanics of the thoracic spine. Clin Orthop. 1971;81:2–14
  76. In:  White AA,  Panjabi MM editor. Clinical biomechanics of the spine. 2nd ed.. Philadelphia: JB Lippincott; 1990;
  77. Wiese G, Callender A. History of spinal manipulation. In:  Haldeman S,  Dagenais S,  Budgell B,  Grunnet-Nilsson N,  Hooper PD,  Meeker WC,  Triano J editor. Principles and practice of chiropractic. 3rd ed.. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2005;p. 5–22
  78. Worth DR. Movements of the head and neck. In:  Boyling JD,  Pastalanga N editor. Grieve's modern manual therapy: the vertebral column. 2nd ed.. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone; 1994;p. 53–68
  79. Zdeblick TA, Abitbol JJ, Kunz DN, McCabe RP, Garfin S. Cervical stability after sequential capsule resection. Spine. 1993;18:2005–2008

PII: S1356-689X(09)00052-6

doi: 10.1016/j.math.2009.03.006

Manual Therapy
Volume 15, Issue 3 , Pages 212-219 , June 2010